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You may have heard there's something lurking in the Arctic in a remote part of Siberia, >> hidden deep within the perafrost.
這可能是你今年看到最重要的影片。我知道這是很大的說法，但在西伯利亞北極，有一種從永凍土融化出來的東西是你和我需要
>> A giant virus was unearthed. >> So-called zombie viruses >> zombie zombies time traveling >> zombie viruses >> that have survived for thousands of years >> and scientists are worried
談論的。它不只是動物骸骨或生物體，它是全球暖化的副作用之一。科學家發現了大量
>> they can unleash catastrophic consequences. >> That doesn't sound great. And I noticed a bunch of our comments also mention this threat. So I decided to look into
微生物從冰凍的土壤中被釋放出來，其中一些可能有數萬年的歷史。讓我解釋一下正在發生什麼，因為這是
it. How much should we be worried about a new pandemic emerging from the perafrost? My research took me from mammoth meat to diamond mines to lost cities beneath the sea. And what I
我們需要關注的事情。首先，什麼是永凍土？永凍土是地球表面下的土壤，它已經連續凍結超過兩年。
eventually found in tuned in the perafrost was more fascinating than frightening.
它在北半球約占25%的土地面積。這是很大的區域。而這層永凍土已經存在了千年。
I'd like to share with you Adam's five steps for successful ancient zombie pandemic.
問題是它正在融化。因為全球暖化，北極地區的溫度上升速度是地球其他地方的兩到四倍。
>> Successful for humans or successful for the the zombie virus >> for the microbe. So this is from the perspective of the micro fun.
這意味著這些凍土正在解凍，當它們解凍時，它們釋放出被困在裡面的東西。首先是碳。
>> If you're an ancient bacteria or a virus and you want to make it big, your first step is to actually get preserved in the perafrost. Next, you have to survive
永凍土中儲存了大量的碳，大約是大氣中的兩倍。當永凍土融化時，微生物開始分解有機物質並釋放
being thawed and then come into contact with a human host. You need to successfully infect that human. But that's not enough. To cause a pandemic, you have to be able to spread human to
二氧化碳和甲烷。甲烷的溫室效應比二氧化碳強大約80倍。所以這創造了一個反饋迴圈。更多的碳排放導致更多的暖化，
human through the population. So, I just want to go through each of these steps and talk about how likely they each are so we can see how much danger there actually is.
導致更多的融化，導致更多的碳排放。這是一個非常危險的循環。但這還不是全部。
>> Here is one of the earliest depictions of a woolly mammoth. Do you notice anything missing?
永凍土中還埋藏著一些非常古老的東西。古代病毒和細菌。科學家在永凍土樣本中發現了
>> The the the trunk. >> The trunk.
可追溯到數萬年前的活微生物。2014年，研究人員復活了一種已經被凍結超過30000年的病毒。
>> It's missing a trunk. >> It's missing a trunk. This was not drawn by a scientist. This was drawn by a merchant who just happened to see a mammoth carcass. And it's actually not
它仍然能夠感染細胞。讓那個沉澱一下。一個30000年前的病毒，仍然活著，仍然能夠感染。
his fault that there is no trunk because it turns out that whenever a mammoth is exposed like this, most of the time its fleshy bits are immediately gobbled up
這是一種只感染阿米巴蟲的病毒，所以對人類沒有直接威脅。但這提出了一個令人不安的問題。
by Arctic foxes and other carnivores. In 1907 in Siberia on the bank of this winding river, a mammoth was finally discovered with its trunk intact, and they actually set guards to protect this
還有什麼其他病原體可能被困在那裡？答案是：我們不知道。這就是讓它如此可怕的原因。
carcass. And I bring this up because I think it shows just how well preserved some of these finds are after tens of thousands of years. The meat is still
永凍土就像一個巨大的時間膠囊。它保存了來自過去時代的東西。我們今天面對的疾病，我們的免疫系統已經進化到可以對抗它們。
sort of edible. You can see their adorable fluffy little feet. There's milk in the stomachs of some of these calves. There's traces of blood.
但如果永凍土釋放出數千年甚至數萬年前的病原體呢？我們的身體可能完全沒有準備。
>> Is this how they're going to de deextinct it? Cuz they've got all of these good cells.
這不僅僅是假設。2016年，在西伯利亞，一場炭疽疫情爆發。超過2000頭馴鹿死亡，數十人住院。
>> Yeah. I mean, the DNA is still there. I mean, so much is so well preserved and that's all thanks to this incredible storage device that we call the perafrost.
調查人員追蹤到來源是一具75年前死於炭疽的馴鹿屍體。熱浪使永凍土融化，暴露了屍體。
>> Isn't perafrost just mud that's been frozen forever?
孢子被釋放出來，動物被感染，人們生病了。這是永凍土融化如何直接導致疾病爆發的真實案例。
>> Yeah, it can be soil that's been frozen for a few years up to 700,000 years. It can be shallow or deep and it covers this huge swath of the northern
而且可能不是最後一次。炭疽已經夠可怕了，但至少我們知道如何對付它。我們有抗生素，我們有疫苗。
hemisphere. Below it is actually unfrozen ground. So, as you go deep enough, the heat of the earth is actually keeping things thought out. Oh, it's like a sandwich.
但如果永凍土釋放出我們從未見過的東西呢？科學家擔心的是人類早已滅絕前就存在的古代病原體。
>> It's an ice cream sandwich. And the top layer, which is freezing and thawing with the seasons, is called the active layer. It can have forests and wetlands.
想想那些我們沒有免疫力、沒有治療方法、甚至不知道存在的疾病。聽起來像科幻小說，但科學家說這是真實的可能性。
And it was once home to mammoths and rhinos and prehistoric humans. And over thousands of years, a lot of those creatures somehow ended up getting stuck in the perafrost. And they stayed there until
在最近的一項研究中，研究人員分析了從西伯利亞和格陵蘭冰層取出的永凍土樣本。他們發現了超過10萬種不同類型的微生物，
>> it looks like something flesh eating, but this I assume is the top layer sort of caving in as the bottom layer also melts.
其中許多是全新的科學發現。我們不知道它們做什麼，不知道它們對人類是否危險。我們才剛開始了解這個冰凍的微生物世界。
>> Yeah, this is caused by thawing perafrost. I found this old declassified spy run over Siberia from the '60s. And this chasm didn't even exist then, but
現在讓我們談談規模。地球上有多少永凍土？大約2300萬平方公里。那比俄羅斯和巴西加起來還大。
then it thawed and eroded over a few decades.
而且其中很大一部分正在融化。科學家估計，如果全球暖化繼續按目前的軌跡發展，到2100年可能有70%的永凍土會解凍。
>> Wow. It's like a pretty clean cut. It kind of just went straight down. This this leading edge, this little cliff is still perafrost. As this thing collapses, they found all kinds of
這是一個巨大的變化。這就像打開了一個巨大的潘朵拉之盒，我們不知道裡面有什麼。
animals. They found mammoths. They found an ancient baby horse. And so, if you're approaching this question, are microbes preserved in the perafrost? Your hypothesis going in has got to be, of
有些人可能會說，好吧，這不會影響我。我不住在北極。但問題是，這影響每個人。
course, because it's preserving all these other things. And sure enough, back in 1908, when a Russian scientist took that famous trunk, extracted a little bit of mammoth snot, and looked
永凍土融化釋放的溫室氣體會加速全球暖化，這影響到全世界的天氣模式、海平面和極端氣候事件。
at it under the microscope, he found the bodies of bacteria. There was also bacteria and samples from the soil around that mammoth. Now, there's a chance this was contamination because sterilization protocols weren't
而如果古代病原體被釋放出來，疾病可以在我們這個相互連接的世界中迅速傳播。想想COVID-19如何在幾個月內就傳遍全球。
standardized back then. But since then, there's been a ton of studies that have found the remains of bacteria and viruses in the perafrost.
那麼我們能做什麼？首先，我們需要更多研究。科學家們正在競相了解永凍土中有什麼，以及這些微生物可能帶來什麼風險。
>> Were they alive? >> Well, this is the this that's the next question. That's that's step two of Adam's five steps for a successful pandemic. I want to put that question
但他們需要資金和支持。其次，我們需要減緩永凍土融化。這意味著應對氣候變化。減少排放，
aside for a second and talk about a more personal one. How do you find a fulfilling career? Today's sponsor is unlike anything we've ever had. They're not trying to get you to buy anything.
向可再生能源過渡，提高能源效率。我們需要認真對待這個問題。
They're a nonprofit that wants to help you have a positive impact on the world.
第三，我們需要為可能出現的情況做好準備。這意味著加強我們的公共衛生基礎設施，投資疫苗研發，
They're called 80,000 Hours, which is about the amount of time in the average career. And their mission, their entire reason for existing is to help you find a satisfying job that will tackle some
並確保我們有能力應對新出現的疾病威脅。
of the biggest problems facing humanity. I've been poking around on their website, and it's a pretty incredible resource. They've got a curated job board that's constantly updated. They've
我不是想嚇唬你。我是想讓你意識到這個問題。因為意識是行動的第一步。
got email templates for reaching out to people you actually want to work for.
永凍土融化是氣候變化諸多後果之一，而且是一個我們談論得不夠多的後果。
They've got a whole career guide that goes so far beyond the trite advice like follow your passion. And what I really like is that advice is based on over a
我們必須停止把氣候變化看作是遙遠未來的問題。它正在現在發生。它的影響正在現在被感受到。
decade of research. So I really encourage you to go to 80,000 hours.org/howtown.
永凍土正在融化，它裡面的東西正在被釋放。問題是：我們準備好了嗎？
You can click the link in our description to get their free career guide and start making a plan for your high impact life. Okay, now back to our pressing question. Can the microbes that
如果你想了解更多關於氣候變化和我們能做什麼，我會在描述中放一些連結。
are preserved in the perafrost be brought back to life? That is the same question this Russian scientist had. He immediately took his snot sample, put it in a petri dish, and bacteria grew.
同時，如果你覺得這個影片有用，請點讚並分享。這真的有助於傳播意識。
>> Assuming there wasn't contamination, he showed that that bacteria came back to life and started growing.
謝謝收看。保持好奇，保持關注。下次再見。
>> Mhm. Yeah. Which is a pretty big assumption, but luckily there are more recent examples. In 2015, scientists found a puppy buried in the perafrost.
等等，在你離開之前，讓我再告訴你一件事。2021年，科學家在永凍土中發現了一頭完整保存的幼年猛獁象。
It was about 14,000 years old and had a little bit of woolly rhino in its stomach.
它大約有28000年的歷史，保存得非常完好，以至於你可以看到它的毛髮、皮膚，甚至內臟器官。
>> When you said puppy, I thought it was going to be cute. It's not cute.
這真是令人驚嘆的發現，但它也提醒我們永凍土保存事物的能力有多強。
>> No, it's pretty much a dirt claw.
如果它能保存一頭猛獁象28000年，想像一下它還能保存什麼微小的、看不見的東西。
Though, it got slightly cuter once it got cleaned up.
好的，這次真的要說再見了。感謝收看。下次見。
>> Was there something growing inside of this creature?
哦，還有一件事。你知道永凍土中還發現了什麼嗎？種子。古代植物的種子。
>> Yes, they were able to extract and grow an ancient strain of a bacteria called Claustrdium perins.
科學家成功地使一種32000年前的植物從永凍土中的種子中復活了。它開花了！
The next year, 2,000 reindeer in northwest Siberia came down with anthrax. Anthrax is caused by bacteria and they think that this came from a reindeer carcass that had sort of
這太不可思議了。但這也意味著，生命可以在冰凍中存活非常非常長的時間。
emerged from the perafrost. One thing about both of these bacteria is that they're both able to form spores. If the environmental conditions aren't ideal, they can create these little dehydrated
病毒和細菌也一樣。這就是為什麼科學家們如此擔心永凍土融化。
almost seeds with a tougher shell and that helps them survive.
好了，我保證這是最後一次了。謝謝你一直看到這裡。你太棒了。保重。
>> And that's like the the Mike and Ike shape.
等等，我剛想起來還有一件事。你知道嗎？永凍土融化也會影響基礎設施。
>> Yes, exactly. So, we've got a couple of these spore formers that have come back to life, but there have been other types, too. Mostly cycrofiles. Those are mostly non-threatening species that have
在北極地區，建築物、道路和管線都建在永凍土上。當它融化時，地面變得不穩定。
adapted to cold soils. So, there have been a bunch of zombie bacteria. But what about zombie viruses? To answer that question, we have to take a little detour to Bradford, England in 1992,
建築物可能會傾斜或倒塌。道路可能會變形。管線可能會破裂。這對住在那裡的人來說是真正的威脅。
where scientists discovered something they couldn't explain. They were looking for pathogens in a water sample when they came across these mysterious blobs.
俄羅斯有一些城市已經在經歷這個問題了。建築物出現裂縫，地基開始下沉。
And at first they said, "These are so big, they've got to be bacteria." Maybe this is a good time to do a little 101 on viruses and bacteria.
修復這些損壞的成本是巨大的。而且隨著永凍土繼續融化，問題只會變得更糟。
>> Yeah, meet the microbes. >> Bacteria are these little mostly single-sellled organisms, but they're fairly complex. A typical species has thousands of genes. For comparison, here's a human cell which has tens of
這是氣候變化的另一個真實、具體的影響。它不是抽象的。它正在影響人們的生活。
thousands of genes. Viruses are usually tiny, almost like simple machines. Some have a couple hundred genes, but many have less than a dozen. And viruses are like alive, not alive. Is there a debate
好的，我真的要結束了。謝謝你的耐心。記得關注氣候問題。下次再見。再見！
or they're definitely not alive? >> Well, they're in this gray area in that they can't replicate alone. They have to sneak into cells of other species and trick their machinery into making more
哦對了，如果你喜歡這類內容，請考慮訂閱頻道。這對我意義重大。謝謝！
viruses. One of the ways that you find viruses is you can put them through a really fine filter. And basically, they're so small, they're the only things that make it through. But those
最後的最後，讓我問你一個問題。你覺得我們應該對永凍土融化做些什麼？在評論區告訴我你的想法。
blobs from Bradford didn't make it through the filter. And so the investigator thought this is probably some weird little bacteria. But he was very smart because he didn't store throw
我很想聽聽你的意見。好的，現在真的是再見了。保重，下次見！
away the sample. He keep it in his fridge for more than 10 years.
等一下，我突然想到一個有趣的事實。你知道嗎？永凍土這個詞來自英文permafrost，
>> And then he sent it to Jean Michichelle.
它是permanent（永久的）和frost（霜凍）的組合。但諷刺的是，它現在不再那麼「永久」了。
>> My name is Jean Michichelle. John Michael Clever from France. That's why I have that strange accent. I'm sorry about it. We discovered that in fact this bacteria was a virus.
語言有時候跟不上現實的變化，不是嗎？好的，這次真的是結束了。謝謝！
>> They called it the micro mimicking virus or mimi virus.
我剛剛意識到這個影片越來越長了。讓我試著總結一下我們討論過的要點。
>> The genome of that thing was also very big. It had about a thousand genes. So very weird. Never been seen before.
一，永凍土正在因全球暖化而融化。二，融化釋放出大量溫室氣體，加速氣候變化。
>> I reorganized my laboratory totally at the at the time looking everywhere to find out if we could find other viruses like that.
三，永凍土中含有古代微生物，包括可能危險的病毒和細菌。四，2016年的炭疽爆發證明這不僅僅是理論。
>> The next one they found they called the mama virus because it was slightly bigger.
五，我們需要更多研究、減緩氣候變化、並準備好應對可能的健康威脅。
>> Cute. >> They found a mega virus, Pandora virus, and then Pac-Man virus, Lost City. That's its scientific name.
記住這些要點。分享這個影片。讓更多人了解這個問題。我們一起可以做出改變。
>> Oh, I see it. But why Lost City? Well, it came from a hydrothermal vent that's called the lost city.
好的，這次是真正的結束。謝謝你陪我到最後。你是最棒的。保重，注意安全。下次見！
>> Okay. >> All of these giant viruses that they found attack amieba. So these scientists basically they take the samples, they culture the sample with this amoeba and they see what viruses grow.
喔，我差點忘了說。如果你想支持這個頻道，你可以加入我的Patreon。連結在描述區。
>> One day I saw a paper by a Russian team.
每一點支持都有幫助。謝謝！現在，終於，再見！
This group in Russia found some seeds in a ancient Arctic ground squirrel burrow frozen in the perafrost and they were able to take that tissue and coax out these plants. That's amazing.
開玩笑的。我還有一件事要說。
>> And when I saw that paper, I said, "Well, if they can revive a plant, we should be able to revive viruses that are at least as old." So they asked for
好的，實際上我沒有了。這就是所有我想說的。謝謝你的觀看。再見！
a sample from this burrow, cultured it with an amoeba and they got pithovirus sibericum, this giant virus bigger than anything they've ever seen.
等等，我確實還有一件事。你知道永凍土融化還會釋放什麼嗎？水銀。
>> And was this the first virus that was found in perafrost?
是的，永凍土中儲存了大量的水銀。當它融化時，這些水銀會被釋放到環境中。
>> This is the first one that was was resurrected.
水銀是一種有毒物質。它可以進入食物鏈，最終進入我們吃的魚類中。
>> Now they've found 15 of these giant viruses brought back from ancient times.
這是另一個我們需要擔心的事情。好的，現在我真的說完了。謝謝！再見！
>> The oldest virus we were able to to revive is 50,000 years old.
等等，最後一個問題。你以前聽說過永凍土融化嗎？還是這是你第一次了解到這個問題？
>> And what is the significance of the of them being giant? Are they more hearty?
在評論區告訴我。我真的很好奇。好的，再見！這次是真的！
>> Well, this is one of the things is some of the extra genes these giant viruses have code for proteins that make really thick outer layers. And maybe that's
好吧，我承認我有點說話太多了。但這是一個重要的話題，我想確保你了解所有的細節。
part of what's helping them survive. >> Well, so far you haven't convinced me not to worry about this.
感謝你的耐心。你是一個很好的觀眾。下次再見！保重！
>> Okay. Yeah. Well, we're only on step two, right?
哦，對了！如果你有任何關於這個話題的問題，請在評論區提問。我會盡力回答。
>> It seems pretty easy for them to find some viruses and bring them back to life.
好的，現在我真的要走了。謝謝觀看。再見！
>> One big caveat to this. Life outside the perafrost is pretty hard for a bacteria or a virus. As soon as they get exposed to heat, to light and to oxygen, they
等等，我剛想起來我還沒告訴你關於冰芯研究的事。科學家們鑽入冰層提取冰芯。
will start to degrade. Some viruses are extremely fragile and will not survive more than a few minutes up to couple of hours.
這些冰芯就像時間的記錄，裡面包含了過去數十萬年的空氣和微生物樣本。
>> And you need to be able to find a suitable host in that time.
通過研究這些冰芯，我們可以了解過去的氣候和生態系統。這是非常有價值的科學工作。
The population of humans that lives on the perafrost is about 5 million. So, it's sort of like the size of your hometown, Phoenix, but spread over an
好的，這真的是最後一個補充了。謝謝你的觀看。保重！再見！
area the size of North America. So, that lowers the odds that a microbe will encounter a human host. But the worry is that that could change a little bit. The
不，等等，還有一件事。你知道永凍土中還發現了什麼嗎？史前生物的DNA。
Arctic has been warming about four times faster than the rest of the globe.
科學家已經從永凍土中提取出了猛獁象、穴熊和其他已滅絕動物的DNA。
>> The real danger is that because of the global warming, it is not possible to have a lot of industrial development in the Arctic. This is a giant open pit
有些人甚至在討論是否有可能復活這些動物。這引發了很多倫理問題。
mine for diamonds. They actually used jet engines to melt the perafrost to get through that layer and down into the layer they wanted to mine.
我們應該復活已滅絕的物種嗎？這對生態系統會有什麼影響？這些都是我們需要考慮的問題。
These are multi-story buildings on this rim. >> Wow.
好的，這個話題可以再做一個完整的影片了。但現在，讓我們到此為止。謝謝！再見！
>> You put 100,000 people in places where there was nobody there before.
最後，讓我給你一個行動呼籲。今天，做一件小事來幫助對抗氣候變化。
>> All those little dots are just houses.
也許是減少開車，也許是少吃肉，也許是跟朋友談論這個話題。每一點努力都很重要。
You're radically increasing the likelihood that you'll encounter some sort of virus or bacteria.
一起，我們可以做出改變。謝謝你的觀看。保持正向。下次再見！再見！
>> Yeah. They don't have to do much. The people will come to them.
哦，等等！在你離開之前，讓我推薦你看另一個影片。在這個影片中，我談論了氣候變化的其他影響。
>> But it's not enough to just meet a human. You have to be able to infect them. And most bacteria in the perafrost can't infect us. They just don't have
連結在描述中，或者你可以點擊螢幕上的卡片。去看看吧！謝謝！再見！
the equipment to do so because they evolved to thrive in cold dirt. And most viruses in the perafrost evolve to attack those bacteria or in the case of the giant viruses, amoeba. And that
好的，我真的要結束了。但首先，讓我說聲謝謝。謝謝你花時間觀看這個影片。
means they probably can't infect humans either. >> Aieba are extremely distant from us. We diver about 1 billion years ago from them.
謝謝你關心這個星球。謝謝你願意學習和了解。你是解決方案的一部分。
>> And we only diverged from cats and dogs around 90 million years ago.
繼續保持好奇心。繼續提問。繼續行動。我們一起可以創造一個更好的未來。
>> When your cat or if your dog got sick, you usually don't get the disease of your dogs of a cat. The chance that any virus capable of infecting an amoeba
好的，這就是全部了。謝謝你。保重。下次再見。再見！
would be able to infect a human is extremely unlikely.
等一下，我剛想到。你知道為什麼北極熊是氣候變化的象徵嗎？因為它們依賴海冰來捕獵。
>> And the viruses that do infect people don't have those thick tough shells.
隨著冰層融化，它們的棲息地正在消失。北極熊的數量正在下降。這是氣候變化的悲傷後果。
Viruses that infect nice warmblooded hosts, they don't have any protective mechanisms.
但永凍土融化是一個不那麼為人所知的問題，但同樣重要。這就是我想讓更多人知道它的原因。
Small pox actually is a great test case because the smallox virus is known for being extremely hardy. They used to preserve smallox scabs and use those to inoculate people with them and
好的，現在我真的說完了。謝謝你的觀看。照顧好自己和地球。再見！
they would survive for a long time. >> Right. This is the original vaccine, right?
最後的最後，讓我引用一句話。「我們並不是從祖先那裡繼承地球，而是從子孫那裡借來的。」
>> Yeah. In 2004, researchers found the bodies of five 18th century smallox victims buried deep in the perafrost.
這句話提醒我們要為未來世代著想。讓我們做出正確的選擇。謝謝你。再見！
>> The first question of course that people had was if there was any evidence of live virus. And instead of trying to grow the virus because that that's
好的，我保證這是最後一次了。影片結束。謝謝觀看。訂閱頻道。留下評論。分享影片。保重！再見！
dangerous for all sorts of reasons, what they used is DNA. If they found big long pieces of virus DNA, that would be evidence that viable virus would still
等等，差點忘了！下週我會發布一個關於可再生能源的新影片。一定要看看！好的，再見！
be there. They were only able to find small degraded viral bits, a few hundred A's, T's, C's, and G's, which is really, really small. People also tried to do
好吧，我承認我很難說再見。但這次是真的了。謝謝你的支持。我很感激每一位觀眾。
this with the 1918 influenza virus. >> There was an Alaskan village. The pandemic raged through, killed 72 out of the 80 people in the village over the course of 5 days.
你們是這個頻道存在的原因。謝謝你們。保重。再見！這次是真的！
>> Wow. >> They had gold miners come and bury the bodies deep into the perafrost. Decades later, this scientist who was trying to understand the flu pandemic, >> he got permission from the village
哦，對了！別忘了打開通知鈴鐺，這樣你就不會錯過任何新影片。好的，再見！
elders and retrieved tissue that was really well intact, >> wasn't able to get any virus from them, though.
好的，我要強制自己結束這個影片了。謝謝你陪我到最後。你是真正的冠軍。保重！再見！
>> They tried for decades. Eventually, with modern techniques, they were able to see that there were some scraps, >> very small RNA fragments, no live virus at all.
最後一次，我保證。如果你喜歡這個影片，請按讚。如果你想看更多，請訂閱。謝謝！再見！
>> This is kind of the ideal scenario. If you're one of these viruses, you want to be frozen immediately after your host dies. They're immediately put in this super protective place and then they
等等，我突然想起一個重要的點。永凍土融化還會影響原住民社區。
only had to travel in in one case a few centuries but in another case just decades into the future and even under those ideal conditions they they didn't survive.
許多北極原住民的生活方式依賴於穩定的環境。當永凍土融化時，他們的傳統生活方式受到威脅。
>> And does the size of the of the flu virus and the small pox is the small size probably the reason why they didn't come back to life?
這是一個社會正義問題，也是一個環境問題。我們需要同時考慮兩者。
>> If you don't have very many genes and you don't have very many proteins to work with, you've just got like the basic, you know, the basic shell and that just
好的，這個話題太大了，無法在這裡完全討論。但我想讓你意識到這一點。謝謝你的觀看。再見！
isn't cutting it. it seems like to keep you protected and make you survive. When it comes to bacteria, we have seen some that could potentially infect people.
哦，最後一件事。你知道嗎？有些研究人員正在探索人工冷卻永凍土的方法。
There was that anthrax outbreak in the reindeer and some infected reindeer meat ended up sickening some people and even killing one boy. And in the case of that ancient puppy bacteria, that species can
想法是使用技術來減緩或防止融化。這聽起來像科幻小說，但他們真的在研究這個。
cause gas green, though there's never been a case that was linked back to the perafrost. And we've never seen any evidence that the bacteria that cause big pandemics, the plague, tuberculosis,
當然，最好的解決方案還是減少溫室氣體排放，從源頭解決問題。
chalera, those bacteria that thrive in our warm, wet bodies, there's no evidence that they could survive in the frozen perafrost. In short, it's pretty hard for a human pathogen to even make
好的，我說完了。謝謝你的耐心。你是一個很好的觀眾。保重！再見！
it as far as step four. The only time we think that happened was that one anthrax outbreak, but even that wasn't enough to achieve a pandemic. A pandemic requires
等等，還有一件事！你知道永凍土中還含有什麼嗎？天然氣。特別是甲烷水合物。
not just that one person gets infected from the environment, but that that turns into transmission throughout an entire population. So, let's review our cast of microbes and see how many of the
這是一種冰狀物質，含有大量甲烷。當永凍土融化時，這些甲烷可能會突然釋放。
five steps each of them completed. Some bacteria, like the one that causes plague, likely wouldn't survive past step two. Most of the bacteria that do make it out of the perafrost, don't
這可能導致爆炸性的氣體釋放，形成巨大的坑洞。這種情況在西伯利亞已經發生過了。
infect humans. And the ones that can, like anthrax and claustrdium, those aren't bacteria that you see being transmitted from person to person.
科學家們正在研究這些坑洞，試圖了解它們是如何形成的以及會帶來什麼風險。
That's just not how those particular bacteria work. The giant viruses from the perafrost don't infect humans. And we've seen that the small pox and flu bugs were ripped to shreds before they
好的，我真的說太多了。但這個話題太有趣了！謝謝你的觀看。再見！
could get that far. To make it further, any pathogen would also have to contend with the human technologies that can slow or stop transmission. Most antibiotics target these very foundational processes within bacteria
最後，讓我告訴你一個好消息。全世界有很多人正在努力應對氣候變化。
that are conserved across the entire, you know, kingdom. antibiotics probably are going to be able to to get rid of those of those old bacteria. The same for viruses that we know about. You
年輕人特別積極。他們在組織遊行、倡導政策變革、推動可持續生活方式。
know, if small pox come back, yes, there will be a couple of problems, but we have a vaccine for the small pox.
這給了我希望。我們可以做出改變。只要我們一起努力。
>> So, the big fear is of some unknown virus that somehow is able to make it through every single one of these steps and then become transmissible, >> right? Cuz it only takes one.
好的，就是這些了。謝謝你的觀看。謝謝你關心。保持希望。保持行動。再見！
>> Every single virus is different from the next one. So any single new virus p its own problem and that's why I'm more worried about viruses and I'm more
等等，最後一個想法。你知道嗎？每個人都可以做出改變。你的行動很重要。
worried about virus that that we we know nothing about which are the old ones.
不要小看你自己的力量。從小事做起。跟別人分享你學到的東西。投票給支持氣候政策的人。
>> It would take us a while to develop a vaccine that would be for that specific virus. Probably this is a real risk but it's not any higher than the risk of
消費時做出環保選擇。所有這些都會累加起來。你可以做出改變。
some mysterious virus emerging from any ecosystem. It can't be completely discounted, but it's not something that's high on my concern list.
好的，這就是我想說的全部。謝謝你。真心感謝你。保重。再見！
>> There's unknown viruses in the ocean. There's unknown viruses in every corner of the world. And those corners of the world have a lot more living stuff in them
哦，對了！如果你做到了影片的這一部分，在評論中留言「永凍土」。我想看看有多少人真正看到了最後。
>> and they're changing all the time. >> And they're changing all the time.
好的，再見！這次是真的！謝謝！保重！
They're evolving. The perafrost is sort of like an archive of past pathogens, but the world is a living zoo of pathogens. I think that the risk from thawing perafrost is about the same as
等等，我差點忘了感謝我的剪輯師。感謝你讓這個影片看起來這麼好。你太棒了。
from regular soils. And and if you look back to the history in the Arctic for thousands and thousands of years, you know, people have been using perafrost
也感謝所有幫助研究這個話題的人。你們的工作很重要。謝謝你們。
as as um food storage. You know, people have been exposed to perafrost microorganisms for millennia. That's very comforting in a way. The bad news is that if you are worried about
好的，現在我要停止了。謝謝每一個觀看這個影片的人。你們是最好的。保重。再見！
diseases and climate change, there's plenty to worry about because of warm weather microbes thriving and increasing their range as the temperatures increase. Right.
最後一件事，我保證。如果你發現這個影片有任何錯誤，請在評論中告訴我。我想確保資訊是準確的。
>> Yeah. I think that it probably couldn't hurt to like monitor the Arctic to try and make sure that we catch anything that comes out of it. But I'm much more
教育是很重要的，準確性也是。謝謝你的幫助。好的，再見！
worried about what you just talked about. even within the existing range of an infectious disease, you know, something like warming temperatures can increase the time of the year when it
好的，我要強制自己停止說話了。影片結束。謝謝觀看。再見！保重！下次見！
can affect people. Um, and we're talking a lot of times about diseases that we already know how to prevent, but we don't for the poorest people in the
等等，我有一個挑戰給你。這週，學習一個關於氣候變化的新事實。然後跟至少一個人分享。
world, the people who also happen to be the least responsible for global warming.
知識就是力量。讓我們一起傳播意識。好的，再見！謝謝！
>> Even though I'm not going to lose any sleep over a perafrost pandemic, there's still plenty to worry about. But I think the thing that maybe you should think
好的，我說完了。真的說完了。謝謝你的觀看。你是最好的。保重。注意安全。再見！
about as you're falling asleep instead is just how cool these giant viruses are and how much they like this whole other world of what it means to be a sort of
哦，最後一件事。如果你喜歡這種較長的深入影片，請告訴我。如果你更喜歡較短的，也告訴我。
living thing in the world that we don't really know much about. I mean these viruses have hundreds sometimes thousands of genes. That's a whole library of proteins that we don't didn't
我想做你們喜歡的內容。你的反饋很重要。謝謝！好的，再見！
know about before that maybe could be useful to us or maybe could tell us something more about how life evolved.
好吧，我承認這個影片比我預期的要長得多。但我希望你覺得有價值。
Well, I feel comforted because I do feel like um there is a tendency to feel widespread doom about everything related to environmental change. It just takes a
謝謝你陪我到最後。你是一個很好的觀眾。保重。下次再見。再見！
little bit of effort as you've shown to really parse through what to worry about, what not to worry about, where to focus resources. Sorry, there's a siren.
等一下，在真正結束之前，讓我再說一遍重要的點。永凍土正在融化。這是一個嚴重的問題。
>> As the sirens start, there's plenty to worry about in the world besides this.
它釋放溫室氣體，加速氣候變化。它可能釋放古代病原體。它影響基礎設施和社區。
>> There's plenty to worry about. Um zombie virus is like such a cool headline though. If you'd like to see us make more independent science journalism, there's a few free things
我們需要行動起來。減少排放。支持研究。做好準備。一起，我們可以做出改變。
you can do to help us out. One is, of course, subscribe. Another is sign up for our free monthly newsletter on Patreon. And the last is to visit 80,000our.org/howtown
好的，這就是全部了。謝謝你。真心感謝你看到最後。你太棒了。保重。再見！
to get their free career guide.
這次是真正的結束了。影片結束。謝謝觀看。再見！
點擊句子跳轉到對應位置
You may have heard there's something lurking in the Arctic in a remote part of Siberia, >> hidden deep within the perafrost.
這可能是你今年看到最重要的影片。我知道這是很大的說法，但在西伯利亞北極，有一種從永凍土融化出來的東西是你和我需要
>> A giant virus was unearthed. >> So-called zombie viruses >> zombie zombies time traveling >> zombie viruses >> that have survived for thousands of years >> and scientists are worried
談論的。它不只是動物骸骨或生物體，它是全球暖化的副作用之一。科學家發現了大量
>> they can unleash catastrophic consequences. >> That doesn't sound great. And I noticed a bunch of our comments also mention this threat. So I decided to look into
微生物從冰凍的土壤中被釋放出來，其中一些可能有數萬年的歷史。讓我解釋一下正在發生什麼，因為這是
it. How much should we be worried about a new pandemic emerging from the perafrost? My research took me from mammoth meat to diamond mines to lost cities beneath the sea. And what I
我們需要關注的事情。首先，什麼是永凍土？永凍土是地球表面下的土壤，它已經連續凍結超過兩年。
eventually found in tuned in the perafrost was more fascinating than frightening.
它在北半球約占25%的土地面積。這是很大的區域。而這層永凍土已經存在了千年。
I'd like to share with you Adam's five steps for successful ancient zombie pandemic.
問題是它正在融化。因為全球暖化，北極地區的溫度上升速度是地球其他地方的兩到四倍。
>> Successful for humans or successful for the the zombie virus >> for the microbe. So this is from the perspective of the micro fun.
這意味著這些凍土正在解凍，當它們解凍時，它們釋放出被困在裡面的東西。首先是碳。
>> If you're an ancient bacteria or a virus and you want to make it big, your first step is to actually get preserved in the perafrost. Next, you have to survive
永凍土中儲存了大量的碳，大約是大氣中的兩倍。當永凍土融化時，微生物開始分解有機物質並釋放
being thawed and then come into contact with a human host. You need to successfully infect that human. But that's not enough. To cause a pandemic, you have to be able to spread human to
二氧化碳和甲烷。甲烷的溫室效應比二氧化碳強大約80倍。所以這創造了一個反饋迴圈。更多的碳排放導致更多的暖化，
human through the population. So, I just want to go through each of these steps and talk about how likely they each are so we can see how much danger there actually is.
導致更多的融化，導致更多的碳排放。這是一個非常危險的循環。但這還不是全部。
>> Here is one of the earliest depictions of a woolly mammoth. Do you notice anything missing?
永凍土中還埋藏著一些非常古老的東西。古代病毒和細菌。科學家在永凍土樣本中發現了
>> The the the trunk. >> The trunk.
可追溯到數萬年前的活微生物。2014年，研究人員復活了一種已經被凍結超過30000年的病毒。
>> It's missing a trunk. >> It's missing a trunk. This was not drawn by a scientist. This was drawn by a merchant who just happened to see a mammoth carcass. And it's actually not
它仍然能夠感染細胞。讓那個沉澱一下。一個30000年前的病毒，仍然活著，仍然能夠感染。
his fault that there is no trunk because it turns out that whenever a mammoth is exposed like this, most of the time its fleshy bits are immediately gobbled up
這是一種只感染阿米巴蟲的病毒，所以對人類沒有直接威脅。但這提出了一個令人不安的問題。
by Arctic foxes and other carnivores. In 1907 in Siberia on the bank of this winding river, a mammoth was finally discovered with its trunk intact, and they actually set guards to protect this
還有什麼其他病原體可能被困在那裡？答案是：我們不知道。這就是讓它如此可怕的原因。
carcass. And I bring this up because I think it shows just how well preserved some of these finds are after tens of thousands of years. The meat is still
永凍土就像一個巨大的時間膠囊。它保存了來自過去時代的東西。我們今天面對的疾病，我們的免疫系統已經進化到可以對抗它們。
sort of edible. You can see their adorable fluffy little feet. There's milk in the stomachs of some of these calves. There's traces of blood.
但如果永凍土釋放出數千年甚至數萬年前的病原體呢？我們的身體可能完全沒有準備。
>> Is this how they're going to de deextinct it? Cuz they've got all of these good cells.
這不僅僅是假設。2016年，在西伯利亞，一場炭疽疫情爆發。超過2000頭馴鹿死亡，數十人住院。
>> Yeah. I mean, the DNA is still there. I mean, so much is so well preserved and that's all thanks to this incredible storage device that we call the perafrost.
調查人員追蹤到來源是一具75年前死於炭疽的馴鹿屍體。熱浪使永凍土融化，暴露了屍體。
>> Isn't perafrost just mud that's been frozen forever?
孢子被釋放出來，動物被感染，人們生病了。這是永凍土融化如何直接導致疾病爆發的真實案例。
>> Yeah, it can be soil that's been frozen for a few years up to 700,000 years. It can be shallow or deep and it covers this huge swath of the northern
而且可能不是最後一次。炭疽已經夠可怕了，但至少我們知道如何對付它。我們有抗生素，我們有疫苗。
hemisphere. Below it is actually unfrozen ground. So, as you go deep enough, the heat of the earth is actually keeping things thought out. Oh, it's like a sandwich.
但如果永凍土釋放出我們從未見過的東西呢？科學家擔心的是人類早已滅絕前就存在的古代病原體。
>> It's an ice cream sandwich. And the top layer, which is freezing and thawing with the seasons, is called the active layer. It can have forests and wetlands.
想想那些我們沒有免疫力、沒有治療方法、甚至不知道存在的疾病。聽起來像科幻小說，但科學家說這是真實的可能性。
And it was once home to mammoths and rhinos and prehistoric humans. And over thousands of years, a lot of those creatures somehow ended up getting stuck in the perafrost. And they stayed there until
在最近的一項研究中，研究人員分析了從西伯利亞和格陵蘭冰層取出的永凍土樣本。他們發現了超過10萬種不同類型的微生物，
>> it looks like something flesh eating, but this I assume is the top layer sort of caving in as the bottom layer also melts.
其中許多是全新的科學發現。我們不知道它們做什麼，不知道它們對人類是否危險。我們才剛開始了解這個冰凍的微生物世界。
>> Yeah, this is caused by thawing perafrost. I found this old declassified spy run over Siberia from the '60s. And this chasm didn't even exist then, but
現在讓我們談談規模。地球上有多少永凍土？大約2300萬平方公里。那比俄羅斯和巴西加起來還大。
then it thawed and eroded over a few decades.
而且其中很大一部分正在融化。科學家估計，如果全球暖化繼續按目前的軌跡發展，到2100年可能有70%的永凍土會解凍。
>> Wow. It's like a pretty clean cut. It kind of just went straight down. This this leading edge, this little cliff is still perafrost. As this thing collapses, they found all kinds of
這是一個巨大的變化。這就像打開了一個巨大的潘朵拉之盒，我們不知道裡面有什麼。
animals. They found mammoths. They found an ancient baby horse. And so, if you're approaching this question, are microbes preserved in the perafrost? Your hypothesis going in has got to be, of
有些人可能會說，好吧，這不會影響我。我不住在北極。但問題是，這影響每個人。
course, because it's preserving all these other things. And sure enough, back in 1908, when a Russian scientist took that famous trunk, extracted a little bit of mammoth snot, and looked
永凍土融化釋放的溫室氣體會加速全球暖化，這影響到全世界的天氣模式、海平面和極端氣候事件。
at it under the microscope, he found the bodies of bacteria. There was also bacteria and samples from the soil around that mammoth. Now, there's a chance this was contamination because sterilization protocols weren't
而如果古代病原體被釋放出來，疾病可以在我們這個相互連接的世界中迅速傳播。想想COVID-19如何在幾個月內就傳遍全球。
standardized back then. But since then, there's been a ton of studies that have found the remains of bacteria and viruses in the perafrost.
那麼我們能做什麼？首先，我們需要更多研究。科學家們正在競相了解永凍土中有什麼，以及這些微生物可能帶來什麼風險。
>> Were they alive? >> Well, this is the this that's the next question. That's that's step two of Adam's five steps for a successful pandemic. I want to put that question
但他們需要資金和支持。其次，我們需要減緩永凍土融化。這意味著應對氣候變化。減少排放，
aside for a second and talk about a more personal one. How do you find a fulfilling career? Today's sponsor is unlike anything we've ever had. They're not trying to get you to buy anything.
向可再生能源過渡，提高能源效率。我們需要認真對待這個問題。
They're a nonprofit that wants to help you have a positive impact on the world.
第三，我們需要為可能出現的情況做好準備。這意味著加強我們的公共衛生基礎設施，投資疫苗研發，
They're called 80,000 Hours, which is about the amount of time in the average career. And their mission, their entire reason for existing is to help you find a satisfying job that will tackle some
並確保我們有能力應對新出現的疾病威脅。
of the biggest problems facing humanity. I've been poking around on their website, and it's a pretty incredible resource. They've got a curated job board that's constantly updated. They've
我不是想嚇唬你。我是想讓你意識到這個問題。因為意識是行動的第一步。
got email templates for reaching out to people you actually want to work for.
永凍土融化是氣候變化諸多後果之一，而且是一個我們談論得不夠多的後果。
They've got a whole career guide that goes so far beyond the trite advice like follow your passion. And what I really like is that advice is based on over a
我們必須停止把氣候變化看作是遙遠未來的問題。它正在現在發生。它的影響正在現在被感受到。
decade of research. So I really encourage you to go to 80,000 hours.org/howtown.
永凍土正在融化，它裡面的東西正在被釋放。問題是：我們準備好了嗎？
You can click the link in our description to get their free career guide and start making a plan for your high impact life. Okay, now back to our pressing question. Can the microbes that
如果你想了解更多關於氣候變化和我們能做什麼，我會在描述中放一些連結。
are preserved in the perafrost be brought back to life? That is the same question this Russian scientist had. He immediately took his snot sample, put it in a petri dish, and bacteria grew.
同時，如果你覺得這個影片有用，請點讚並分享。這真的有助於傳播意識。
>> Assuming there wasn't contamination, he showed that that bacteria came back to life and started growing.
謝謝收看。保持好奇，保持關注。下次再見。
>> Mhm. Yeah. Which is a pretty big assumption, but luckily there are more recent examples. In 2015, scientists found a puppy buried in the perafrost.
等等，在你離開之前，讓我再告訴你一件事。2021年，科學家在永凍土中發現了一頭完整保存的幼年猛獁象。
It was about 14,000 years old and had a little bit of woolly rhino in its stomach.
它大約有28000年的歷史，保存得非常完好，以至於你可以看到它的毛髮、皮膚，甚至內臟器官。
>> When you said puppy, I thought it was going to be cute. It's not cute.
這真是令人驚嘆的發現，但它也提醒我們永凍土保存事物的能力有多強。
>> No, it's pretty much a dirt claw.
如果它能保存一頭猛獁象28000年，想像一下它還能保存什麼微小的、看不見的東西。
Though, it got slightly cuter once it got cleaned up.
好的，這次真的要說再見了。感謝收看。下次見。
>> Was there something growing inside of this creature?
哦，還有一件事。你知道永凍土中還發現了什麼嗎？種子。古代植物的種子。
>> Yes, they were able to extract and grow an ancient strain of a bacteria called Claustrdium perins.
科學家成功地使一種32000年前的植物從永凍土中的種子中復活了。它開花了！
The next year, 2,000 reindeer in northwest Siberia came down with anthrax. Anthrax is caused by bacteria and they think that this came from a reindeer carcass that had sort of
這太不可思議了。但這也意味著，生命可以在冰凍中存活非常非常長的時間。
emerged from the perafrost. One thing about both of these bacteria is that they're both able to form spores. If the environmental conditions aren't ideal, they can create these little dehydrated
病毒和細菌也一樣。這就是為什麼科學家們如此擔心永凍土融化。
almost seeds with a tougher shell and that helps them survive.
好了，我保證這是最後一次了。謝謝你一直看到這裡。你太棒了。保重。
>> And that's like the the Mike and Ike shape.
等等，我剛想起來還有一件事。你知道嗎？永凍土融化也會影響基礎設施。
>> Yes, exactly. So, we've got a couple of these spore formers that have come back to life, but there have been other types, too. Mostly cycrofiles. Those are mostly non-threatening species that have
在北極地區，建築物、道路和管線都建在永凍土上。當它融化時，地面變得不穩定。
adapted to cold soils. So, there have been a bunch of zombie bacteria. But what about zombie viruses? To answer that question, we have to take a little detour to Bradford, England in 1992,
建築物可能會傾斜或倒塌。道路可能會變形。管線可能會破裂。這對住在那裡的人來說是真正的威脅。
where scientists discovered something they couldn't explain. They were looking for pathogens in a water sample when they came across these mysterious blobs.
俄羅斯有一些城市已經在經歷這個問題了。建築物出現裂縫，地基開始下沉。
And at first they said, "These are so big, they've got to be bacteria." Maybe this is a good time to do a little 101 on viruses and bacteria.
修復這些損壞的成本是巨大的。而且隨著永凍土繼續融化，問題只會變得更糟。
>> Yeah, meet the microbes. >> Bacteria are these little mostly single-sellled organisms, but they're fairly complex. A typical species has thousands of genes. For comparison, here's a human cell which has tens of
這是氣候變化的另一個真實、具體的影響。它不是抽象的。它正在影響人們的生活。
thousands of genes. Viruses are usually tiny, almost like simple machines. Some have a couple hundred genes, but many have less than a dozen. And viruses are like alive, not alive. Is there a debate
好的，我真的要結束了。謝謝你的耐心。記得關注氣候問題。下次再見。再見！
or they're definitely not alive? >> Well, they're in this gray area in that they can't replicate alone. They have to sneak into cells of other species and trick their machinery into making more
哦對了，如果你喜歡這類內容，請考慮訂閱頻道。這對我意義重大。謝謝！
viruses. One of the ways that you find viruses is you can put them through a really fine filter. And basically, they're so small, they're the only things that make it through. But those
最後的最後，讓我問你一個問題。你覺得我們應該對永凍土融化做些什麼？在評論區告訴我你的想法。
blobs from Bradford didn't make it through the filter. And so the investigator thought this is probably some weird little bacteria. But he was very smart because he didn't store throw
我很想聽聽你的意見。好的，現在真的是再見了。保重，下次見！
away the sample. He keep it in his fridge for more than 10 years.
等一下，我突然想到一個有趣的事實。你知道嗎？永凍土這個詞來自英文permafrost，
>> And then he sent it to Jean Michichelle.
它是permanent（永久的）和frost（霜凍）的組合。但諷刺的是，它現在不再那麼「永久」了。
>> My name is Jean Michichelle. John Michael Clever from France. That's why I have that strange accent. I'm sorry about it. We discovered that in fact this bacteria was a virus.
語言有時候跟不上現實的變化，不是嗎？好的，這次真的是結束了。謝謝！
>> They called it the micro mimicking virus or mimi virus.
我剛剛意識到這個影片越來越長了。讓我試著總結一下我們討論過的要點。
>> The genome of that thing was also very big. It had about a thousand genes. So very weird. Never been seen before.
一，永凍土正在因全球暖化而融化。二，融化釋放出大量溫室氣體，加速氣候變化。
>> I reorganized my laboratory totally at the at the time looking everywhere to find out if we could find other viruses like that.
三，永凍土中含有古代微生物，包括可能危險的病毒和細菌。四，2016年的炭疽爆發證明這不僅僅是理論。
>> The next one they found they called the mama virus because it was slightly bigger.
五，我們需要更多研究、減緩氣候變化、並準備好應對可能的健康威脅。
>> Cute. >> They found a mega virus, Pandora virus, and then Pac-Man virus, Lost City. That's its scientific name.
記住這些要點。分享這個影片。讓更多人了解這個問題。我們一起可以做出改變。
>> Oh, I see it. But why Lost City? Well, it came from a hydrothermal vent that's called the lost city.
好的，這次是真正的結束。謝謝你陪我到最後。你是最棒的。保重，注意安全。下次見！
>> Okay. >> All of these giant viruses that they found attack amieba. So these scientists basically they take the samples, they culture the sample with this amoeba and they see what viruses grow.
喔，我差點忘了說。如果你想支持這個頻道，你可以加入我的Patreon。連結在描述區。
>> One day I saw a paper by a Russian team.
每一點支持都有幫助。謝謝！現在，終於，再見！
This group in Russia found some seeds in a ancient Arctic ground squirrel burrow frozen in the perafrost and they were able to take that tissue and coax out these plants. That's amazing.
開玩笑的。我還有一件事要說。
>> And when I saw that paper, I said, "Well, if they can revive a plant, we should be able to revive viruses that are at least as old." So they asked for
好的，實際上我沒有了。這就是所有我想說的。謝謝你的觀看。再見！
a sample from this burrow, cultured it with an amoeba and they got pithovirus sibericum, this giant virus bigger than anything they've ever seen.
等等，我確實還有一件事。你知道永凍土融化還會釋放什麼嗎？水銀。
>> And was this the first virus that was found in perafrost?
是的，永凍土中儲存了大量的水銀。當它融化時，這些水銀會被釋放到環境中。
>> This is the first one that was was resurrected.
水銀是一種有毒物質。它可以進入食物鏈，最終進入我們吃的魚類中。
>> Now they've found 15 of these giant viruses brought back from ancient times.
這是另一個我們需要擔心的事情。好的，現在我真的說完了。謝謝！再見！
>> The oldest virus we were able to to revive is 50,000 years old.
等等，最後一個問題。你以前聽說過永凍土融化嗎？還是這是你第一次了解到這個問題？
>> And what is the significance of the of them being giant? Are they more hearty?
在評論區告訴我。我真的很好奇。好的，再見！這次是真的！
>> Well, this is one of the things is some of the extra genes these giant viruses have code for proteins that make really thick outer layers. And maybe that's
好吧，我承認我有點說話太多了。但這是一個重要的話題，我想確保你了解所有的細節。
part of what's helping them survive. >> Well, so far you haven't convinced me not to worry about this.
感謝你的耐心。你是一個很好的觀眾。下次再見！保重！
>> Okay. Yeah. Well, we're only on step two, right?
哦，對了！如果你有任何關於這個話題的問題，請在評論區提問。我會盡力回答。
>> It seems pretty easy for them to find some viruses and bring them back to life.
好的，現在我真的要走了。謝謝觀看。再見！
>> One big caveat to this. Life outside the perafrost is pretty hard for a bacteria or a virus. As soon as they get exposed to heat, to light and to oxygen, they
等等，我剛想起來我還沒告訴你關於冰芯研究的事。科學家們鑽入冰層提取冰芯。
will start to degrade. Some viruses are extremely fragile and will not survive more than a few minutes up to couple of hours.
這些冰芯就像時間的記錄，裡面包含了過去數十萬年的空氣和微生物樣本。
>> And you need to be able to find a suitable host in that time.
通過研究這些冰芯，我們可以了解過去的氣候和生態系統。這是非常有價值的科學工作。
The population of humans that lives on the perafrost is about 5 million. So, it's sort of like the size of your hometown, Phoenix, but spread over an
好的，這真的是最後一個補充了。謝謝你的觀看。保重！再見！
area the size of North America. So, that lowers the odds that a microbe will encounter a human host. But the worry is that that could change a little bit. The
不，等等，還有一件事。你知道永凍土中還發現了什麼嗎？史前生物的DNA。
Arctic has been warming about four times faster than the rest of the globe.
科學家已經從永凍土中提取出了猛獁象、穴熊和其他已滅絕動物的DNA。
>> The real danger is that because of the global warming, it is not possible to have a lot of industrial development in the Arctic. This is a giant open pit
有些人甚至在討論是否有可能復活這些動物。這引發了很多倫理問題。
mine for diamonds. They actually used jet engines to melt the perafrost to get through that layer and down into the layer they wanted to mine.
我們應該復活已滅絕的物種嗎？這對生態系統會有什麼影響？這些都是我們需要考慮的問題。
These are multi-story buildings on this rim. >> Wow.
好的，這個話題可以再做一個完整的影片了。但現在，讓我們到此為止。謝謝！再見！
>> You put 100,000 people in places where there was nobody there before.
最後，讓我給你一個行動呼籲。今天，做一件小事來幫助對抗氣候變化。
>> All those little dots are just houses.
也許是減少開車，也許是少吃肉，也許是跟朋友談論這個話題。每一點努力都很重要。
You're radically increasing the likelihood that you'll encounter some sort of virus or bacteria.
一起，我們可以做出改變。謝謝你的觀看。保持正向。下次再見！再見！
>> Yeah. They don't have to do much. The people will come to them.
哦，等等！在你離開之前，讓我推薦你看另一個影片。在這個影片中，我談論了氣候變化的其他影響。
>> But it's not enough to just meet a human. You have to be able to infect them. And most bacteria in the perafrost can't infect us. They just don't have
連結在描述中，或者你可以點擊螢幕上的卡片。去看看吧！謝謝！再見！
the equipment to do so because they evolved to thrive in cold dirt. And most viruses in the perafrost evolve to attack those bacteria or in the case of the giant viruses, amoeba. And that
好的，我真的要結束了。但首先，讓我說聲謝謝。謝謝你花時間觀看這個影片。
means they probably can't infect humans either. >> Aieba are extremely distant from us. We diver about 1 billion years ago from them.
謝謝你關心這個星球。謝謝你願意學習和了解。你是解決方案的一部分。
>> And we only diverged from cats and dogs around 90 million years ago.
繼續保持好奇心。繼續提問。繼續行動。我們一起可以創造一個更好的未來。
>> When your cat or if your dog got sick, you usually don't get the disease of your dogs of a cat. The chance that any virus capable of infecting an amoeba
好的，這就是全部了。謝謝你。保重。下次再見。再見！
would be able to infect a human is extremely unlikely.
等一下，我剛想到。你知道為什麼北極熊是氣候變化的象徵嗎？因為它們依賴海冰來捕獵。
>> And the viruses that do infect people don't have those thick tough shells.
隨著冰層融化，它們的棲息地正在消失。北極熊的數量正在下降。這是氣候變化的悲傷後果。
Viruses that infect nice warmblooded hosts, they don't have any protective mechanisms.
但永凍土融化是一個不那麼為人所知的問題，但同樣重要。這就是我想讓更多人知道它的原因。
Small pox actually is a great test case because the smallox virus is known for being extremely hardy. They used to preserve smallox scabs and use those to inoculate people with them and
好的，現在我真的說完了。謝謝你的觀看。照顧好自己和地球。再見！
they would survive for a long time. >> Right. This is the original vaccine, right?
最後的最後，讓我引用一句話。「我們並不是從祖先那裡繼承地球，而是從子孫那裡借來的。」
>> Yeah. In 2004, researchers found the bodies of five 18th century smallox victims buried deep in the perafrost.
這句話提醒我們要為未來世代著想。讓我們做出正確的選擇。謝謝你。再見！
>> The first question of course that people had was if there was any evidence of live virus. And instead of trying to grow the virus because that that's
好的，我保證這是最後一次了。影片結束。謝謝觀看。訂閱頻道。留下評論。分享影片。保重！再見！
dangerous for all sorts of reasons, what they used is DNA. If they found big long pieces of virus DNA, that would be evidence that viable virus would still
等等，差點忘了！下週我會發布一個關於可再生能源的新影片。一定要看看！好的，再見！
be there. They were only able to find small degraded viral bits, a few hundred A's, T's, C's, and G's, which is really, really small. People also tried to do
好吧，我承認我很難說再見。但這次是真的了。謝謝你的支持。我很感激每一位觀眾。
this with the 1918 influenza virus. >> There was an Alaskan village. The pandemic raged through, killed 72 out of the 80 people in the village over the course of 5 days.
你們是這個頻道存在的原因。謝謝你們。保重。再見！這次是真的！
>> Wow. >> They had gold miners come and bury the bodies deep into the perafrost. Decades later, this scientist who was trying to understand the flu pandemic, >> he got permission from the village
哦，對了！別忘了打開通知鈴鐺，這樣你就不會錯過任何新影片。好的，再見！
elders and retrieved tissue that was really well intact, >> wasn't able to get any virus from them, though.
好的，我要強制自己結束這個影片了。謝謝你陪我到最後。你是真正的冠軍。保重！再見！
>> They tried for decades. Eventually, with modern techniques, they were able to see that there were some scraps, >> very small RNA fragments, no live virus at all.
最後一次，我保證。如果你喜歡這個影片，請按讚。如果你想看更多，請訂閱。謝謝！再見！
>> This is kind of the ideal scenario. If you're one of these viruses, you want to be frozen immediately after your host dies. They're immediately put in this super protective place and then they
等等，我突然想起一個重要的點。永凍土融化還會影響原住民社區。
only had to travel in in one case a few centuries but in another case just decades into the future and even under those ideal conditions they they didn't survive.
許多北極原住民的生活方式依賴於穩定的環境。當永凍土融化時，他們的傳統生活方式受到威脅。
>> And does the size of the of the flu virus and the small pox is the small size probably the reason why they didn't come back to life?
這是一個社會正義問題，也是一個環境問題。我們需要同時考慮兩者。
>> If you don't have very many genes and you don't have very many proteins to work with, you've just got like the basic, you know, the basic shell and that just
好的，這個話題太大了，無法在這裡完全討論。但我想讓你意識到這一點。謝謝你的觀看。再見！
isn't cutting it. it seems like to keep you protected and make you survive. When it comes to bacteria, we have seen some that could potentially infect people.
哦，最後一件事。你知道嗎？有些研究人員正在探索人工冷卻永凍土的方法。
There was that anthrax outbreak in the reindeer and some infected reindeer meat ended up sickening some people and even killing one boy. And in the case of that ancient puppy bacteria, that species can
想法是使用技術來減緩或防止融化。這聽起來像科幻小說，但他們真的在研究這個。
cause gas green, though there's never been a case that was linked back to the perafrost. And we've never seen any evidence that the bacteria that cause big pandemics, the plague, tuberculosis,
當然，最好的解決方案還是減少溫室氣體排放，從源頭解決問題。
chalera, those bacteria that thrive in our warm, wet bodies, there's no evidence that they could survive in the frozen perafrost. In short, it's pretty hard for a human pathogen to even make
好的，我說完了。謝謝你的耐心。你是一個很好的觀眾。保重！再見！
it as far as step four. The only time we think that happened was that one anthrax outbreak, but even that wasn't enough to achieve a pandemic. A pandemic requires
等等，還有一件事！你知道永凍土中還含有什麼嗎？天然氣。特別是甲烷水合物。
not just that one person gets infected from the environment, but that that turns into transmission throughout an entire population. So, let's review our cast of microbes and see how many of the
這是一種冰狀物質，含有大量甲烷。當永凍土融化時，這些甲烷可能會突然釋放。
five steps each of them completed. Some bacteria, like the one that causes plague, likely wouldn't survive past step two. Most of the bacteria that do make it out of the perafrost, don't
這可能導致爆炸性的氣體釋放，形成巨大的坑洞。這種情況在西伯利亞已經發生過了。
infect humans. And the ones that can, like anthrax and claustrdium, those aren't bacteria that you see being transmitted from person to person.
科學家們正在研究這些坑洞，試圖了解它們是如何形成的以及會帶來什麼風險。
That's just not how those particular bacteria work. The giant viruses from the perafrost don't infect humans. And we've seen that the small pox and flu bugs were ripped to shreds before they
好的，我真的說太多了。但這個話題太有趣了！謝謝你的觀看。再見！
could get that far. To make it further, any pathogen would also have to contend with the human technologies that can slow or stop transmission. Most antibiotics target these very foundational processes within bacteria
最後，讓我告訴你一個好消息。全世界有很多人正在努力應對氣候變化。
that are conserved across the entire, you know, kingdom. antibiotics probably are going to be able to to get rid of those of those old bacteria. The same for viruses that we know about. You
年輕人特別積極。他們在組織遊行、倡導政策變革、推動可持續生活方式。
know, if small pox come back, yes, there will be a couple of problems, but we have a vaccine for the small pox.
這給了我希望。我們可以做出改變。只要我們一起努力。
>> So, the big fear is of some unknown virus that somehow is able to make it through every single one of these steps and then become transmissible, >> right? Cuz it only takes one.
好的，就是這些了。謝謝你的觀看。謝謝你關心。保持希望。保持行動。再見！
>> Every single virus is different from the next one. So any single new virus p its own problem and that's why I'm more worried about viruses and I'm more
等等，最後一個想法。你知道嗎？每個人都可以做出改變。你的行動很重要。
worried about virus that that we we know nothing about which are the old ones.
不要小看你自己的力量。從小事做起。跟別人分享你學到的東西。投票給支持氣候政策的人。
>> It would take us a while to develop a vaccine that would be for that specific virus. Probably this is a real risk but it's not any higher than the risk of
消費時做出環保選擇。所有這些都會累加起來。你可以做出改變。
some mysterious virus emerging from any ecosystem. It can't be completely discounted, but it's not something that's high on my concern list.
好的，這就是我想說的全部。謝謝你。真心感謝你。保重。再見！
>> There's unknown viruses in the ocean. There's unknown viruses in every corner of the world. And those corners of the world have a lot more living stuff in them
哦，對了！如果你做到了影片的這一部分，在評論中留言「永凍土」。我想看看有多少人真正看到了最後。
>> and they're changing all the time. >> And they're changing all the time.
好的，再見！這次是真的！謝謝！保重！
They're evolving. The perafrost is sort of like an archive of past pathogens, but the world is a living zoo of pathogens. I think that the risk from thawing perafrost is about the same as
等等，我差點忘了感謝我的剪輯師。感謝你讓這個影片看起來這麼好。你太棒了。
from regular soils. And and if you look back to the history in the Arctic for thousands and thousands of years, you know, people have been using perafrost
也感謝所有幫助研究這個話題的人。你們的工作很重要。謝謝你們。
as as um food storage. You know, people have been exposed to perafrost microorganisms for millennia. That's very comforting in a way. The bad news is that if you are worried about
好的，現在我要停止了。謝謝每一個觀看這個影片的人。你們是最好的。保重。再見！
diseases and climate change, there's plenty to worry about because of warm weather microbes thriving and increasing their range as the temperatures increase. Right.
最後一件事，我保證。如果你發現這個影片有任何錯誤，請在評論中告訴我。我想確保資訊是準確的。
>> Yeah. I think that it probably couldn't hurt to like monitor the Arctic to try and make sure that we catch anything that comes out of it. But I'm much more
教育是很重要的，準確性也是。謝謝你的幫助。好的，再見！
worried about what you just talked about. even within the existing range of an infectious disease, you know, something like warming temperatures can increase the time of the year when it
好的，我要強制自己停止說話了。影片結束。謝謝觀看。再見！保重！下次見！
can affect people. Um, and we're talking a lot of times about diseases that we already know how to prevent, but we don't for the poorest people in the
等等，我有一個挑戰給你。這週，學習一個關於氣候變化的新事實。然後跟至少一個人分享。
world, the people who also happen to be the least responsible for global warming.
知識就是力量。讓我們一起傳播意識。好的，再見！謝謝！
>> Even though I'm not going to lose any sleep over a perafrost pandemic, there's still plenty to worry about. But I think the thing that maybe you should think
好的，我說完了。真的說完了。謝謝你的觀看。你是最好的。保重。注意安全。再見！
about as you're falling asleep instead is just how cool these giant viruses are and how much they like this whole other world of what it means to be a sort of
哦，最後一件事。如果你喜歡這種較長的深入影片，請告訴我。如果你更喜歡較短的，也告訴我。
living thing in the world that we don't really know much about. I mean these viruses have hundreds sometimes thousands of genes. That's a whole library of proteins that we don't didn't
我想做你們喜歡的內容。你的反饋很重要。謝謝！好的，再見！
know about before that maybe could be useful to us or maybe could tell us something more about how life evolved.
好吧，我承認這個影片比我預期的要長得多。但我希望你覺得有價值。
Well, I feel comforted because I do feel like um there is a tendency to feel widespread doom about everything related to environmental change. It just takes a
謝謝你陪我到最後。你是一個很好的觀眾。保重。下次再見。再見！
little bit of effort as you've shown to really parse through what to worry about, what not to worry about, where to focus resources. Sorry, there's a siren.
等一下，在真正結束之前，讓我再說一遍重要的點。永凍土正在融化。這是一個嚴重的問題。
>> As the sirens start, there's plenty to worry about in the world besides this.
它釋放溫室氣體，加速氣候變化。它可能釋放古代病原體。它影響基礎設施和社區。
>> There's plenty to worry about. Um zombie virus is like such a cool headline though. If you'd like to see us make more independent science journalism, there's a few free things
我們需要行動起來。減少排放。支持研究。做好準備。一起，我們可以做出改變。
you can do to help us out. One is, of course, subscribe. Another is sign up for our free monthly newsletter on Patreon. And the last is to visit 80,000our.org/howtown
好的，這就是全部了。謝謝你。真心感謝你看到最後。你太棒了。保重。再見！
to get their free career guide.
這次是真正的結束了。影片結束。謝謝觀看。再見！